;ERIES. 


I     *ot 
1  ION 


T  H 


TH 


LLIAM  G.  SNOW,  S.B., 


tv       iOCIE*n        BCH 

S  NOLAN,  A.M.,  M.-  , 

RRICAX  1        :  -.--iJTS, 

SOB 


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VENTILATION 


OF 


BUILDINGS 


WILLIAM  G.  SNOW,  S.B., 


MEMBER    AMER 


THOMAS  NOLAN,  A.M.,  M.S., 

FELLOW    AMERICAN    INSTITUTE    OF   ARCHITECTS, 

ASSISTANT     PROFESSOR    OF     ARCHITECTURE,    UNIVERSITY    OF 

PENNSYLVANIA. 


NEW  YORK: 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY, 
23  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STREETS. 

1906. 


COPYRIGHT,  1906,  BY  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 


IT  has  been  the  desire  of  the  authors 
to  condense  into  a  small  compass  in  the 
following  pages  a  statement  of  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  ventilation  and  of 
their  application  to  different  kinds  of 
buildings. 

No  claim  to  originality  is  made  except 
for  the  form  in  which  the  subject  is  pre- 
sented, and  due  credit  is  intended  to  be 
given  for  any  extracts  or  quotations  from 
the  works  of  others.  The  authors  of* 
this  little  book  believe  that  while  there 
are  excellent  comprehensive  treatises  and 
manuals  on  both  the  science  and  the  art 
of  warming  and  ventilating  buildings  for 
those  who  wish  to  investigate  either  ex- 
haustively, there  is  room  also  for  a  primer 
in  the  subject  for  those  who  wish  to  be 
told  simply  and  briefly  what  is  to-day 
considered  the  best  practice. 

140219 


The  subject  matter,  in  about  the  form 
here  presented,  has  formed  the  basis  of 
one  part  of  a  series  of  lectures  by  the 
authors  in  the  Department  of  Architect- 
ure of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
the  details  of  that  phase  of  the  subject 
which  relates  to  the  mechanics  of  venti- 
lation having  been  purposely  omitted,  as 
they  are  discussed  in  another  volume  of 
this  series. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  book  may  prove 
useful,  not  only  as  a  popular  presentation 
of  the  subject  for  the  general  public,  but 
also  as  a  suggestive  outline  in  architect- 
ural, engineering  and  other  schools  in 
connection  with,  or  as  supplementary  to 
courses  of  lectures  which  are  introduc- 
tory to  the  whole  subject  of  the  ventila- 
tion of  buildings. 

THE  AUTHORS. 
PHILADELPHIA, 
January,  1906. 


CONTENTS. 


I.— GENERAL   PRINCIPLES   OF    VENTI- 
LATION. 

1.  Importance  of  Ventilation    .        .         .       7 

2.  Composition  and  Impurities  of  the  At- 

mosphere   10 

3.  Removal  of  Dust  .         .         .         .14 

4.  Testing  the  Quality  of  the  Air     .         .     14 

5.  Proportion  of  Carbonic- Acid  Gas          .     18 

6.  Amount  of  Air-supply  Necessary          .     20 

7.  Draughtlness 24 

8.  Compulsory  Ventilation        .         .         .25 

9.  Space  per  Occupant  of  Rooms      .         .     28 

10.  Cost  of  Ventilation       ....  31 

11.  Humidity      ......  35 

12.  Cooling  the  Air 37 

13.  Testing  Systems  of  Ventilation    .         .  40 

14.  Ventilation  and  Acoustics  .         .  42 

II— DIFFERENT   SYSTEMS    OF    VENTI- 
LATION. 

1.  Systems  of  Ventilation          .         .         .44 

2.  Fans  and  Blowers         .         .         .         .52 

3.  Plenum  and  Exhaust  or  Vacuum  Sys- 

tems of  Ventilation  Compared          .     54 


0 

4.  Aspirating  Coils  versus  Exhaust  Fans  .     56 

5.  Downward  Ventilation          .         .         .58 

6.  Upward  Ventilation      .         .         .         .63 

HI. —VENTILATION      OF      DIFFERENT 
KINDS    OF  BUILDINGS. 

1.  Residences  .     66 

2.  School  Buildings 68 

3.  Churches 71 

4.  Halls  and  Court-rooms          .         ,         .74 

5.  Theaters        ....  .75 

6.  Hospitals  and  Asylums         .         .        .76 

7.  Office  Buildings 79 

8.  Department  Stores        .         .         .         .81 

9.  Manufacturing  Buildings     .        .         .83 


VENTILATION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


I.— GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    OF 
VENTILATION. 


1.  IMPORTANCE  OF  VENTILATION. 

UNDER  modern  conditions,  and  with 
buildings  having  a  tight  construction 
and  a  relatively  small  accidental  in-leak- 
age  of  air,  the  question  of  providing  a 
sufficient  supply  of  air  becomes  an  im-r 
portant  one,  especially  in  the  case  of 
rooms  which  are  crowded  or  occupied 
continuously  for  many  hours. 

As  Billings  observes:*  "It  requires 
the  observation  of  the  effects  on  the 
health  and  life  of  a  number  of  men  ex- 
posed to  such  air  for  a  series  of  months 
or  years,  to  demonstrate  the  slow  but 

*  Billings,  J.  S.,  "Ventilating  and  Heating,"  1893,  Chap. 
VII.,  page  180. 


8 

certain  production  of  throat  and  lung 
troubles,  the  loss  of  energy  and  vitality, 
and  the  shortening  of  life  which  are  thus 
produced.  These  observations  have  been 
made  on  soldiers  occupying  ill-ventilated 
barracks  and  operatives  working  in  close 
workrooms,  and  comparison  of  these  re- 
sults has  shown  that  where  in  any  room 
occupied  by  human  beings  there  is  a  defi- 
nite, unpleasant  animal  or  musty  odor, 
perceived  by  a  person  whose  sense  of 
smell  is  of  the  usual  acuteness  and  who 
enters  from  the  fresh  outer  air,  the  con- 
tinued breathing  of  the  air  producing 
such  odor  will  be  injurious  to  health." 

In  certain  buildings,  where  the  results 
of  changing  from  poor  to  good  ventila- 
tion have  been  carefully  observed,  a 
marked  improvement  in  the  general 
health  of  the  occupants  has  been  mani- 
fest. For  example,  the  records  of  the 
United  States  Pension  Bureau  state  that 
"  just  prior  to  its  occupancy  of  the  pres- 
ent thoroughly-ventilated  structure,  the 
department  was  housed  in  numerous 


9 

small  and  poorly-ventilated  buildings, 
under  which  conditions  the  sickness  of 
employes  entailed  an  aggregate  annual 
loss  of  time  amounting  to  18,736  days. 
In  the  new  building  the  loss  immediately 
dropped  to  only  10,114  days,  a  reduction 
of  over  45  per  cent.  When  we  consider 
the  conditions  of  yearly  salary  under 
which  most  of  these  clerks  are  paid,  the 
financial  return  from  improved  ventila- 
tion is  emphatically  evident." 

Professor  S.  H.  Woodbridge,  of  the 
-Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
in  documents  relating  to  ventilation  sta- 
tistics, states  that  carefully  collected  data 
show  that  the  death-rates  have  been  re- 
duced by  the  introduction  of  efficient 
ventilating  systems  in  children's  hospi- 
tals from  50  to  5  per  cent.,  in  surgical 
wards  of  general  hospitals  from  44  to  13 
per  cent.,  in  army  hospitals  from  23  to  6 
per  cent. ,  and  in  prisons  from  80  to  8  per 
cent.  Even  among  horses  a  reduction 
has  been  made  from  19  to  1.5  per  cent, 
in  army  stables,  while  during  an  epidemic 


10 


the  rate  has  been  reduced  fully  80  per 
cent,  by  improved  methods  of  ventila- 
tion. 

2.    COMPOSITION    AND   IMPURITIES    OF 
THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

Atmospheric  air  is  a  mixture  composed 
of  about  79  parts  of  nitrogen  and  21 
parts  of  oxygen  by  volume,  and  in  10,000 
volumes  there  are  from  3  to  5  volumes 
of  carbonic-acid  gas. 

The  relative  purity  of  the  atmosphere 
is  generally  expressed  by  the  number  of 
parts  by  volume  of  carbonic-acid  gas, 
expressed  by  the  symbol  C02,  contained 
in  10,000  parts  or  volumes  of  air. 

The  proportion  of  this  gas  contained 
in  the  atmosphere  may  be  easily  deter- 
mined by  several  methods,  and  it  affords 
a  fairly  good  index  of  the  relative  num- 
ber of  micro-organisms  present.  It  is 
the  latter  which  cause  the  discomfort 
and  danger  to  persons  who  remain  for 
long  periods  in  an  atmosphere  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  C0a. 


11 

*  "  It  is  very  improbable  that  a  minute 
quantity  of  organic  matter  contained  in 
the  air  expired  from  human  lungs  has 
any  deleterious  influence  upon  men  wha 
inhale  it  in  ordinary  rooms.  In  ordinary 
quiet  respiration  no  bacteria  are  con- 
tained in  the  expired  air.  In  the  act  of 
coughing  or  sneezing  such  organisms  may 
be  thrown  out.  .  .  .  Air  is  contaminated 
by  minute  particles  of  dust.  .  .  .  Ex- 
periments in  hospital  wards  showed  that 
in  this  dust  there  were  micro-organisms- 
including  some  of  the  bacteria  which 
produce  inflammation  and  suppuration, 
and  it  is  probable  that  these  were  the- 
only  really  dangerous  elements  in  this  air. 

"The  experiments  made  on  animals 
compelled  to  breathe  air  vitiated  by  pro- 
ducts of  respiration  make  it  improbable- 
that  there  is  any  peculiarly  volatile 
poisonous  matter  in  the  air  expired  by 
healthy  men  and  animals  other  than  C02. 

*4t  Expired  Air  and  Problems  of  Ventilation,"  Apple* 
ton's  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Feb.,  1896.  Drs.  Billings,, 
Mitchell,  and  Bergey. 


12 

".  . .  Tuberculosis  and  pneumonia  are 
most  prevalent  among  persons  living  and 
working  in  unventilated  rooms.  These 
diseases  are  caused  by  specific  bacteria 
which  for  the  most  part  gain  access  to 
the  air-passages  by  adhering  to  particles 
of  dust  which  are  inhaled,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  greater  liability  to  those 
diseases  of  persons  living  in  crowded  and 
unventilated  rooms  is  to  a  large  extent 
due  to  the  special  liability  of  such  rooms 
to  become  infected  with  the  germs  of 
those  diseases. 

* '  The  discomfort  produced  by  crowded, 
ill-ventilated  rooms  is  not  due  to  the  ex- 
cess of  C02  nor  to  bacteria,  nor  in  most 
•cases  to  dusts  of  any  kind.  The  two 
great  causes  of  such  discomfort — though 
not  the  only  ones — are  excessive  temper- 
ature and  unpleasant  odors.  The  cause 
of  the  unpleasant  musty  odor  ...  is 
Tinknown.  It  may  be  due  in  part  to  vol- 
atile products  of  decomposition  contained 
in  the  expired  air  of  persons  having  de- 
cayed teeth,  foul  mouths,  or  certain  dis- 


13 

orders  of  the  digestive  apparatus;  and  in 
part  to  volatile  fatty  acids  given  off  with 
or  produced  from  the  excretions  of  the 
skin. 

".  .  .  The  problem  of  securing  comfort 
and  health  in  inhabited  rooms  requires 
the  consideration  of  the  best  methods  of 
preventing  or  disposing  of  dusts  of 
various  kinds,  of  properly  regulating 
temperature  and  moisture,  and  of  pre- 
venting the  entrance  of  poisonous  gases, 
such  as  CO,  derived  from  heating  and 
lighting  apparatus,  rather  than  a  con- 
sideration of  simply  a  dilution  of  air  to 
a  certain  standard  or  proportion  of  C02 
present." 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  opinion  ex- 
pressed in  the  last  paragraph  is  quite  at 
variance  with  the  opinions  favoring  the 
commonly  accepted  method  of  maintain- 
ing a  certain  standard  of  purity,  based 
upon  the  amount  of  C02  present,  by  ad- 
mitting a  sufficient  volume  of  fresh  air  to 
dilute  the  foul  air  to  any  desired  degree. 


14 


3.  KEMOVAL  OF  DUST. 

To  secure  the  removal  of  dust,  cheese- 
cloth stretched  on  frames  is  commonly 
used,  but  to  be  effective  it  is  necessary 
that  the  area  be  large,  otherwise  the 
cloth  will  soon  become  clogged  with  dust 
and  the  flow  of  air  impeded.  It  is  well 
so  to  proportion  the  screen  that  the  ve- 
locity of  the  air  through  the  cloth  does 
not  exceed  60  feet  per  minute. 

Sometimes  the  air  is  washed,  by  caus- 
ing it  to  pass  through  a  coke-filter  over 
which  water  trickles;  and  in  other  cases 
the  air  is  brought  in  contact  with  fine 
sprays  of  water  from  specially  designed 
nozzles. 

4.  TESTING  THE  QUALITY  OF  THE  AIR. 

Several  methods  have  been  employed 
to  determine  directly  the  number  of  mi- 
cro-organisms present  in  air. 

*"  The  first  is  known  as  Hesse's  method, 


*Sir  Henry  E.  Roscoe,  "A  Lecture  on  Ventilation  of 
Schools,"  1889. 


15 

in  which  a  solid  medium  is  used  for  the 
nutrition  of  the  micro-organisms.  The 
principle  of  this  method  consists  in 
drawing  a  known  volume  of  air  through 
a  long,  wide  tube,  the  inside  of  which  is 
coated  with  Koch's  nutrient  gelatine 
peptone.  As  the  air  passes  through  the 
tube  the  micro-organisms  settle  on  the 
jelly,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  de- 
velop into  colonies,  which  become  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  and  can  be  counted. 
The  second  method  is  that  proposed  by 
Carnelly,  the  air  being  aspirated  through 
a  sterilized  conical  flask  also  containing 
solid  sterilized  jelly.  The  micro-organ- 
isms fall  on  the  surface  of  the  sterilized 
jelly,  and  in  a  few  days  the  separate  col- 
onies due  to  each  special  organism  make 
their  appearance,  and  can  be  counted. 
In  the  third  method,  that  of  Percy 
Frankland,  the  air  is  drawn  through  a 
glass  tube  containing  two  sterilized  plugs 
of  glass  wool,  which  are  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  a  flask  containing  sterilized 
gelatine." 


1C 


As  these  methods  are  rather  too  refined 
for  ordinary  work,  the  carbonic-acid  test 
has  become  the  recognized  one,  owing  to 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  made,  and 
to  the  fact  that  the  results  show  closely 
enough  for  practical  purposes  the  quality 
of  the  atmosphere. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  making 
this  test  is  to  take  six  clean,  dry  bottles, 
with  tight  stoppers,  having  a  capacity  of 
respectively  100,  200,  250,  300,  350,  and 
400  cubic  centimeters;  a  glass  tube 
having  a  capacity  of  exactly  15  cubic 
centimeters  to  a  given  mark;  and  a 
bottle  of  perfectly  clear,  fresh  lime- 
water,  as  the  apparatus  required.  The 
bottles  are  to  be  filled  with  the  air  to  be 
examined  by  means  of  a  bellows  or  a  hand- 
ball syringe.  To  the  smallest  bottle  15 
cubic  centimeters  of  the  lime-water  are 
to  be  added,  the  cork  put  in,  and  the 
bottleVell  shaken.  If  turbidity  appears, 
the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  will  be  at 
least  16  parts  in  10,000.  If  no  turbidity 
appears,  the  bottle  of  200  cubic  centi- 


17 

meters  is  to  be  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner ;  turbidity  in  this  will  indicate  12 
parts  in  10,000.  In  similar  manner,  tur- 
bidity in  the  250  cubic  centimeter  bottle 
will  indicate  at  least  10  parts  in  10,000  ; 
in  the  300,  8  parts;  in  the  350,  7  parts; 
and  in  the  400,  less  than  6  parts.  .  The 
ability  to  conduct  more  accurate  analy- 
ses can  be  acquired  only  by  special  study 
and  a  knowledge  of  chemical  properties 
and  methods  of  investigation. 

Other  apparatus  and  tests  are  em- 
ployed which  are  more  convenient  than 
the  preceding,  and  give  fairly  close  re- 
sults. 

In  the  air  tests  designed  by  Dr.  Fitz 
of  Harvard  University,  a  measured  vol- 
ume of  a  colored  solution  known  as  phe- 
nolph  thalein  is  placed  in  a  tube.  This 
tube, of  telescopic  pattern,  when  elongated 
brings  a  known  volume  of  air  in  contact 
with  the  liquid. 

The  thumb  is  placed  over  the  end  of 
the  tube,  which  is  then  shaken.  If  the 
color  in  the  liquid  does  not  disappear, 


18 

the  telescopic  portion  is  pushed  down  to 
release  the  air,  and  again  drawn  ont  in 
order  to  bring  a  fresh  volume  in  contact 
with  the  liquid.  This  operation  is  re- 
peated until  the  color  in  the  liquid  dis- 
appears. 

The  tube  is  graduated,  the  marks  in- 
dicating cubic  centimetres,  and  a  table 
accompanies  the  apparatus  showing  the 
number  of  parts  of  C02  in  the  air  cor- 
responding to  various  volumes,  required 
to  cause  the  disappearance  of  color  in  the 
liquid.  Dr.  Fitz  considers  air  containing 
14  parts  of  C02  in  10,000  very  bad;  9 
parts,  bad;  7  parts,  fair,  and  5  parts,  good. 

Another  convenient  test,  giving  ap- 
proximately correct  results,  is  that  made 
by  the  use  of  what  is  known  as  "  Wol- 
pert's  apparatus." 

5.    PROPORTION  OF  CARBONIC-ACID 

GAS. 
I 

An  average  adult  at  rest  exhales  about 
480  cu.  in.  of  air  per  minute.  Woodbriclge 
puts  it  at  15  cu.  ft.  per  hour.  Of  this, 


19 

about  four  per  cent,  is  C02,  which,  though 
heavier  than  the  surrounding  air  when  at 
the  same  temperature,  tends  to  rise  be- 
cause of  the  higher  temperature  gained 
by  passing  through  the  lungs.  In  addition 
to  the  exhalation  from  the  lungs,  there 
is  given  off  from  the  body  considerable 
vapor,  which  must  be  absorbed  by  the 
surrounding  air. 

One  function  of  ventilation  is  to  so 
dilute  the  air  of  occupied  rooms  that  the 
proportion  of  C02  is  kept  within  certain 
limits. 

Ventilation  may  be  considered  good 
when  the  number  of  parts  of  C02  in  a 
room  does  not  exceed  from  6  to  7  parts  in 
10,000.  With  8  parts,  the  air  appears 
close  to  one  entering  froni  out-of-doors. 
When  the  C02  exceeds  10  parts  in  10,000, 
the  quality  of  the  air  is  noticeably  bad, 
and  produces  a  feeling  of  weariness  in  a 
person  breathing  it  for  some  time.  Con- 
tinuous breathing  of  musty  air,  that  is, 
air  noticeably  close-smelling  to  a  person 
entering  from  out-of-doors,  reduces  the 


20 

vitality  of  persons  breathing  it,  and  ren- 
ders them  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

6.    AMOUKT    OF    AIR-SUPPLY    NECES- 
SARY. 

The  volume  of  fresh  air  that  must  be 
supplied  to  keep  the  air  in  the  room  at  a 
certain  degree  of  purity  may  be  readily 
computed.  For  example :  What  volume 
of  air  must  be  supplied  to  an  occupied 
room  to  prevent  the  C02  from  exceeding 
7  parts  in  10,000?  Taking  as  a  basis 
the  commonly  accepted  figures  of  0.6 
cu.  ft.  as  the  amount  of  C02  given  off  per 
person  per  hour,  and  4  parts  in  10,000 
as  the  proportion  of  C02  in  the  outside 
air;  if  the  fresh  air  admitted  absorbs  3 
parts  to  reach  the  standard  of  7  parts  as 
explained  above,  3  cu.  ft.  of  C02  is  taken 
up,  which  is  equal  to  that  given  off  by 
3-^0.6=5  persons.  That  is,  10,000 
cu.  ft,  of  air  must  be  admitted  per  hour 
to  5  persons,  or  2000  cu.  ft.  per  hour 
per  person  in  order  that  the  number  of 
parts  of  C0a  in  10,000  shall  not  exceed  7. 


21 


By  similar  computations,  6000  en.  ft» 
per  hour  per  person  will  be  found  neces- 
sary to  dilute  the  air  to  5  parts  of  C02  in 
10,000  parts,  3000  cu.  ft.  to  dilute  it  to  6 
parts,  1000  cu.  ft.  for  7.33  parts,  1500 
cu.  ft.  for  8  parts,  and  so  on. 

Where  gas-lights  are  used,  an  addi- 
tional supply  of  air  must  be  provided, 
since  the  vitiation  of  air  caused  by  each 
jet  is  as  great  as  that  caused  by  five  or 
six  men. 

The  air-supply  commonly  accepted  as 
sufficient  for  different  classes  of  build- 
ings is  shown  by  the  following  table : 


Class  of  building. 

Cu.  ft.  per  hour 
per  occupant. 

Cu  .  ft.  per  min. 
per  occupant. 

Hospitals  

4000-6000 

66-100 

Court-rooms  

2000 

33 

Legislative  halls.. 
Theaters     

2000 
1500-1800 

33 
25-30 

HalJs  

1000-1200 

17-20 

Churches  

1000-1200 

17-20 

Schools  

1800-2400 

30-40 

22 

*  "The  quantities  of  air  which  should 
be  furnished  by  ventilating  means  can- 
not be  safely  based  solely  on  the  number 
of  those  to  occupy  the  rooms  to  be  pro- 
vided for.  .  .  .  The  smaller  the  per 
capita  space,  the  less  the  per  capita  air- 
supply  must  necessarily  be  made.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  larger  the  per  capita 
space,  the  greater  the  per  capita  supply 
required  to  maintain  the  agreeable  if  not 
the  wholesome  quality  of  the  air.  The 
most  active  and  dangerous  impurity  in 
the  air  of  occupied  enclosures  is  the  mat- 
ter of  organic  nature,  called  effluvia, 
thrown  off  by  the  body  through  its  pores. 
That  matter  rapidly  changes  in  charac- 
ter, passing  through  a  fermenting  and 
decomposing  to  a  putrescent  condition. 
The  longer  it  is  retained  within  a  room, 
the  worse  its  odor  becomes  and  the  more 
morbific  its  condition.  The  aims  of 
ventilation  should  be,  as  far  as  practica- 
ble, to  limit  atmospheric  impurities  to 

*Prof.  S.  H.  Woodbridge  in  Conn.  School  Document 
Ho.  13, 1898. 


23 

the  location  of  their  origin,  and  to  re- 
duce the  quantity  and  the  time  of  reten- 
tion of  such  impurities  within  an  inclo- 
sure  to  a  minimum.  In  proportion  as  the 
per  capita  space  of  an  inclosure  is 
greater,  the  quantity  of  such  matter  con- 
tained in  it  is  larger,  the  time  of  its  re- 
tention longer,  and  its  character  more 
offensive  and  harmful.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  the  more  sparsely  occupied 
rooms  of  a  building  are  those  to  which 
the  largest  per  capita  supply  should  be 
furnished. 

"Considering  only  the  permanent  ef- 
fects upon  health,  an  individual  air-sup- 
ply of  1000  cu.  ft.  per  hour  furnished  to 
a  crowded  audience-hall  having  but  100 
cu.  ft.  of  space  per  capita,  may  be  re- 
garded as  giving  as  good  ventilation  as  a 
3000  cu.  ft.  per  capita  supply  of  air  per 
hour  furnished  to  a  school-room  having 
a  300  cu.  ft.  per  capita  space." 


7.  DKAUGHTINESS. 

The  frequency  with  which  the  air  in  a 
room  may  be  changed  depends  upon  the 
possibility  of  introducing  it  without  caus- 
ing draughts. 

With  wall  registers  overhead,  it  is 
difficult  to  change  the  air  oftener  than 
every  five  or  six  minutes.  Even  then, 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  thoroughly 
distribute  the  supply.  This  is  done  in 
many  cases  by  means  of  ' 'cliff users  "  at- 
tached to  the  registers.  These  devices 
are  made  of  vertical  strips  of  metal, 
which  are  set  at  different  angles  and  thus 
cause  the  air  discharged  through  the  reg- 
ister to  spread  out  over  a  larger  area. 

In  regard  to  draughtiness,  it  may  be 
said  that  experiment  has  shown  that  a 
velocity  of  air  of  1^  ft.  per  second  is  not 
perceptible  to  the  senses,  and  a  velocity 
of  3  ft.  per  second  causes  no  discomfort. 

Accordingly,  in  seating  spaces,  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  air-currents 
from  exceeding  the  higher  velocity  stated. 


25 


In  school-buildings  and  halls,  into  which 
the  air  may  be  introduced  at  a  tempera- 
ture above  that  of  the  room  and -at  a  point 
considerably  above  the  heads  of  the  occu- 
pants, no  uncomfortable  draughts  need 
be  felt.  The  air  will  pass  across  the 
ceiling  until  the  exposed  walls  and  win- 
dows are  reached,  when  it  will  become 
chilled,  descend  to  the  floor  and  be 
drawn  through  the  seating  space  to  the 
vent  openings  located  near  the  floor. 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  preventing 
draughts  occurs  in  the  case  of  a  supply 
of  air  from  above,  which  must  be  brought 
in  at  a  temperature  below  that  of  the 
room,  as  in  the  case  of  a  crowded  hall 
having  little  or  no  exposure.  In  such 
cases  the  air  must  be  brought  in  through 
numerous  openings  of  relatively  small 
size. 

8.  COMPULSORY  VENTILATION. 

Massachusetts  was  the  pioneer  in  the 
matter  of  compulsory  ventilation.  In 
that  State  the  Department  of  Inspection 
of  Factories,  Workshops,  and  Public 


26 

Buildings  demands  that  the  following  re- 
quirements be  guaranteed  in  the  specifi- 
cations accompanying  plans  submitted 
to  the  Department  for  approval : 

1.  The  apparatus  must,  with  proper 
management,  heat  all  the  rooms,  inclu- 
ding  the   corridors,   to   70°  F.   in   any 
weather. 

2.  With  the  rooms  at  70°  F.  and  a  dif- 
ference of  not  less  than  40°  between  tho 
temperature  of  the  outside  air  and  that 
of  the  air  entering  the  room  at  the  warm- 
air  inlet,  the  apparatus  must  supply  at 
least  30  cu.  ft.  of  air  per  minute  for  each 
scholar  accommodated  in  the  rooms. 

3.  Such  supply  of  air  must  so  circu- 
late in  the  rooms  that  no  uncomforta- 
ble draught  will  be  felt,  and   that    the 
difference  in   temperature   between  any 
two  points  on  the  breathing  plane  in  the 
occupied  portion  of  a  room  will  not  ex- 
ceed 3°. 

4.  Vitiated  air  in  amount  equal  to  the 
.supply  from  the  inlets  must  be  removed 
•  through  the  vent  outlets. 


5.  The  sanitary  appliances  must  be 
so  ventilated  that  no  odors  therefrom 
will  be  perceived  in  any  portion  of  the 
building. 

The  laws  of  Pennsylvania  require  that 
schoolhouses  shall  have  in  each  class- 
room at  least  15  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space 
and  not  less  than  200  cu.  ft.  of  air 
space  per  pupil,  and  shall  provide  for  an 
approved  system  of  heating  and  ventila- 
tion by  means  of  which  each  class-room 
shall  be  supplied  with  fresh  air  at  the 
rate  of  not  less  than  30  cu.  ft.  per 
minute  for  each  pupil,  and  warmed  to 
maintain  an  average  temperature  of  70° 
F.  during  the  coldest  weather. 

The  New  York  State  requirements  are 
practically  .the  same,  and  provide  in  ad- 
dition that  the  facilities  for  exhausting 
the  foul  or  vitiated  air  shall  be  posi- 
tive and  independent  of  atmospheric 
changes. 


28 

9.   SPACE  PER  OCCUPANT  OF  BOOMS. 

The  space  provided  per  occupant  is 
obviously  an  important  matter,  and,  as 
noted,  is  one  of  the  provisions  in  the 
laws  governing  the  ventilation  of  schools. 
The  larger  cities  guard,  the  welfare  of 
tenement-house  dwellers  by  demanding 
certain  capacities,  heights,  and  window 
areas  of  rooms.  Thus  in  Philadelphia 
it  is  required  that 

"Every  habitable  room  in  every  such 
tenement-house  shall  be  of  such  dimen- 
sions as  to  contain  at  least  700  cu. 
ft.  of  air.  Every  habitable  room  in 
every  such  tenement-house  shall  be  in 
every  part  not  less  than  eight  feet  in 
height  from  floor  to  ceiling;  .  .  .  the  to- 
tal window  space  for  one  room  shall  not 
be  less  than  twelve  square  feet." 

The  Boston  Building  Laws  require 
that 

"  Every  room  in  every  tenement  or 
lodging  house  hereafter  built,  and  in 
every  building  hereafter  altered  to  be 


29 

used  as  such,  shall1  not  be  less  than  eight 
feet  in  height  in  the  clear  in  every  story, 
except  that  in  the  attic  it  may  be  less 
than  eight  feet  high  for  one  half  the 
area  of  the  room.  Every  such  room 
shall  have  one  or  more  windows  on  an 
open  air-space  with  an  area  at  least  one 
tenth  as  great  as  that  of  the  room.  The 
top  of  at  least  one  window  on  such  air- 
space in  each  room  shall  be  at  least  seven 
feet  six  inches  from  the  floor,  and  the 
upper  sash  of  the  same  window  shall  be 
movable." 

The  New  York  City  requirements  are 
as  follows:  The  height  of  rooms  must 
be  not  less  than  eight  feet,  and  the  total 
area  of  window  or  windows  in  every 
room  communicating  with  the  external 
air  shall  be  at  least  one  tenth  of  the  su- 
perficial area  of  such  room;  and  the  top 
of  one,  at  least,  of  such  windows  shall 
not  be  less  than  seven  feet  six  inches 
above  the  floor,  and  the  upper  half,  at 
least,  shall  be  made  so  as  to  open  the  full 
width. 


30 


Every  habitable  room  of  a  smaller  area 
than  one  hundred  superficial  feet,  if  it 
does  not  communicate  directly  with  the 
external  air,  and  is  without  an  open  fire- 
place, must  be  provided  with  special 
means  of  ventilation,  by  a  separate  air- 
shaft  extending  to  the  roof,  or  otherwise, 
as  the  board  of  health  may  prescribe. 

In  all  tenement-houses  hereafter  con- 
structed, and  buildings  hereafter  con- 
verted to  the  purposes  of  a  tenement- 
house,  each  room  must  have  a  separate 
window  opening  to  the  outer  air. 

Each  water-closet  room  must  have  a 
window  opening  to  the  outer  air,  and 
such  water-closet  in  closure,  if  provided 
with  a  ventilating  flue  or  duct,  may 
have  the  window  opening  on  any  court 
or  shaft  containing  at  least  twenty-five 
square  feet  in  area. 

Certain  minimum  requirements  abroad 
are  stated  in  the  following  schedule : 


31 


|.S 

Kind  of  building. 

|l| 

Authority. 

5  a 

General       school-  rooms 

(minimum  allowed) 

130 

London  School  Board. 

Graded    schools    (mini- 

mum allowed) 

117 

u          it           n 

Dundee    board     school, 

average 

152 

Common    lodging-house 

(sleeping-rooms) 

300 

Local  Govt.  Board. 

British     army    barracks 

(minimum) 

600 

Army  Regulations. 

Prisons,  seldom  under 

750-800 

Parkes'  u  Hygiene." 

Non-textile  workrooms 

250 

Factory  Act. 

Army  horses  (minimum) 

1GOO 

Army  Regulations. 

"          "  (in  infirmary) 

1900 

" 

In  this  country  the  per  capita  space  in 
churches  is  generally  300  cu.  ft.,  or  more. 
Schools  have  about  200  cu.  ft.  and  ordi- 
nary halls  frequently  have  only  100  cu. 
ft.,  or  even  less. 

10.  COST  OF  VENTILATION. 
The  relatively  great  cost  of  ventilation 
is  due  not  only  to  a  loss  of  heat  accom- 
panying the  escape  of  air  through  the 


32 

yent-flues  greater  than  would  be  the 
case  if  they  were  not  provided,  but  it  is 
also  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of 
mechanical  ventilation,  a  considerable 
part  of  the  expense  is  chargeable  to  the 
operation  of  the  fans,  driven  by  engines 
or  motors. 

The  relative  cost  of  steam  and  gas  en- 
gines, electric  and  water  motors,  depends 
upon  a  variety  of  conditions,  such  as  the 
steam-pressure,  quality  of  gas,  voltage, 
and  water-pressure.  In  a  general  way, 
however,  for  apparatus  of  10  horse-power 
or  less,  the  gas-engine  costs  much  more 
than  any  of  the  others.  The  steam- 
engine  and  the  electric  motor  do  not 
differ  greatly  in  first  cost,  and  the  water- 
motor,  in  comparison  with  the  others, 
is  very  inexpensive. 

As  to  the  running  expense,  gas-engine 
makers  claim  a  consumption  of  from  15 
to  17  cu.  ft.  of  gas  per  effective  horse- 
power. With  small  gas-engines  under 
ordinary  working  conditions,  the  con- 
sumption is  likely  to  be  double  this 


33 


amount,  or  more,  costing  with  dollar  gas 
four  or  five  cents  per  horse-power  per 
hour. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  small  low- 
pressure  steam-engines  to  take  from  50 
to  75  Ibs.,  or  even  as  much  as  100  Ibs.  of 
steam  per  horse-power,  equivalent  to 
from  7  to  14  or  more  Ibs.  of  coal  per 
horse-power  per  hour,  and  costing  from 
1J  to  3^  cents  per  horse-power  per  hour. 
If  the  exhaust  steam  is  utilized,  however, 
it  matters  not  how  much  steam  the  engine 
consumes,  since  the  exhaust  steam  is 
practically  as  good  for  heating  purposes 
as  live  steam. 

A  common  meter-rate  for  electric  mo- 
tors is  equivalent  to  about  10  cents  per 
horse-power  per  hour,  which,  with  the 
discount  based  upon  a  sliding  scale,  ac- 
cording to  the  power  usefl,  is  not  far  from 
8  cents  per  horse-power  per  hour  for  a 
motor  of  moderate  size. 

Power  developed  by  water-motors  at 
ordinary  city  rates  varies,  according  to 
the  pressure,  from  30  to  40  cents  per 


34 

horse-power  per  hour, — a  prohibitive  rate. 
Of  course,  the  higher  the  pressure  the 
less  the  consumption  of  water,  and  the 
lower  the  cost. 

From  the  preceding,  it  may  be  said 
that  to  develop  each  horse-power  per 
hour  would  cost  roughly,  exclusive  of 
attendance,  5  cents  with  gas,  3  cents 
with  steam  when  the  exhaust  is  not  util- 
ized, 10  cents  with  electricity,  and  40 
cents  with  water,  these  figures  being 
based  upon  small  machines  under  ordi- 
nary working  conditions. 

Of  these  machines,  the  electric  and. 
water  motors  are  the  least  noisy,  and  also 
require  the  least  attention.  With  the  gas- 
engine  very  careful  treatment  is  neces- 
sary to  muffle  the  exhaust.  The  steam- 
engine,  if  of  heavy  pattern,  low  speed,  and 
in  proper  adjustment,  will  run  practically 
without  noise;  but  the  pulsations  of  the 
exhaust  should  be  diminished,  by  allow- 
ing the  steam  to  escape  into  a  receiver 
or  equalizing-chamber  before  passing  to 
the  exhaust-pipe  leading  to  the  roof. 


35 


11.  HUMIDITY. 

The  humidity  or  moisture  in  the  at- 
mosphere is  commonly  expressed  in  terms 
of  relative  humidity;  that  is,  complete 
saturation,  or  the  "dew-point,"  corre- 
sponds to  a  relative  humidity  of  100.  A 
fair  average  humidity,  in  what  is  consid- 
ered fine  weather,  in  northern  latitudes, 
is  about  70.  In  certain  sections  of  the 
country  it  is  often  much  lower,  and 
in  others  much  higher;  and  in  heated 
rooms  it  frequently  falls  to  one  third  of 
the  above.  Whether  or  not  these  low 
humidities  work  injury  to  persons  ex- 
posed* to  them,  is  a  question  in  regard  to 
which  the  opinions  of  investigators  differ. 

To  whatever  extent  it  may  affect  the 
health,  it  is  a  pretty  generally  accepted 
fact  that  air  which  is  too  dry  in  heated 
rooms  causes  sensations  which  are  not  as 
agreeable  to  a  healthy  person  as  air  con- 
taining a  greater  amount  of  moisture. 
Since  evaporation  cools  the  air,  and  the 
rate  is  more  rapid  when  it  is  dry  than 


36 

when  it  is  moist,  it  follows  that  to  secure 
the  same  degree  of  comfort  the  tempera- 
ture must  be  kept  at  a  higher  point  when 
the  humidity  is  low  than  when  it  is  high. 
To  increase  the  relative  humidity  ar- 
tificially, evaporating  pans  or  fine  sprays 
of  water  are  employed.  The  former  in 
their  simplest  forms  are  the  little  pans 
with  which  most  furnaces  are  equipped, 
but  which,  in  fact,  have  little  effect  upon 
the  large  volume  of  air  passing  through 
the  heater.  The  capacity  of  air  to  ab- 
sorb moisture  increases  rapidly  with  a 
rise  in  temperature.  For  example,  air 
at  70°  F.  will  absorb  approximately  eight 
times  as  much  moisture  as  air  at  *15°  F. 
Hence  if  the  air  at  the  latter  temperature 
had  a  relative  humidity  of  70,  it  is  quite 
evident  that  a  large  amount  of  water 
would  have  to  be  evaporated  to  give  the 
same  relative  humidity  to  the  air  in  the 
rooms.  To  evaporate  a  pound  of  water, 
1000  heat-units,  in  round  numbers,  are 
required;  and  since  only  from  8000  to 
.9000  heat-units  can  be  utilized  per  pound 


37 


of  coal  burned,  it  is  readily  seen  that 
to  increase,  to  any  extent,  the  relative 
humidity  of  air  supplied  to  a  building, 
an  amount  of  coal  must  be  burned  to 
evaporate  the  water  far  in  excess  of  what, 
at  first  thought,  would  be  considered 
necessary.  The  cost  of  artificially  rais- 
ing the  relative  humidity  in  rooms  to 
that  corresponding  to  June  weather  is 
not  the  only  drawback,  experimenters 
having  found  that  with  a  relative  humid- 
ity in  rooms  of  much  over  30,  and  an 
outside  temperature  of  0°  F.,  the  windows 
become  thickly  coated  with  frost,  due  to 
the  condensation  of  moisture  on  them. 

12.    COOLIKG    THE    AlR. 

For  cooling  air  on  a  small  scale,  ice 
may  be  conveniently  employed.  Each 
pound  in  melting  absorbs  about  142  heat- 
units;  and  since  1  heat-unit  absorbed 
from  the  atmosphere  will  lower  the  tem- 
perature of  approximately  55  cu.  ft.  of 
air  1°  F.,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  com- 
pute how  much  ice  must  be  melted  to 


38 

cool  a  given  volume  of  air  a  certain  num- 
ber of  degrees. 

Chilling  the  air  reduces  its  capacity 
for  absorbing  moisture,  and  increases  its 
relative  humidity. 

An  excess  of  humidity  causes  dis- 
comfort, and  hence  air-supply  systems 
are  sometimes  arranged  to  pass  the  air 
over  trays  of  chloride  of  calcium,  which 
has  a  strong  affinity  for  moisture,  and  to 
thus  dry  the  air,  after  passing  it  over  the 
ice  and  before  allowing  it  to  enter  the 
rooms. 

For  large  plants  a  refrigerating  ma- 
chine should  be  used,  with  brine  at  a 
very  low  temperature  circulating  through 
coils,  over  which  the  air  is  forced  or 
drawn  by  fans. 

*  Professor  Woodbridge  states  that 
*'  either  of  two  methods  may  be  fol- 
lowed for  making  the  treated  [chilled] 
air  salubrious  and  agreeable.  The 
whole  quantity  of  air  cooled  may  be 

*  Report  on  Heating  and  Ventilation  of  the  Senate 
Wing,  U.  S.  Capitol,  Washington,  Dec.  14,  1895. 


39 


brought  down  to  so  low  a  temperature 
as  to  precipitate  the  necessary  moisture 
for  drying  it,  and  then  warmed  again  by 
artificial  heating  to  the  temperature  and 
dryness  essential  to  comfort;  or  a  part 
only  of  the  air  may  be  so  sharply  chilled 
as  to  remove  the  weight  of  moisture  nec- 
essary to  insure  dry  ness,  and  this  chilled 
and  dried  air  may  then  be  passed  on  and 
mixed  with  the  untreated  part,  resulting 
in  the  drying  and  cooling  of  the  entire 
volume  of  air." 

The  capacity  of  refrigerating  machines 
is  commonly  expressed  in  "  tons  of  ice- 
melting  capacity  in  24  hours/'  one  ton 
refrigerating  effect  being  equivalent  to 
284,000  heat-units.  One  ton  of  coal 
should  produce  at  least  13  tons  of  refrig- 
eration, based  upon  ice-melting  capacity; 
and  one  ton  of  refrigeration  should  be 
produced  by  the  expenditure  of  not  over 
1.2  engine  horse-power. 


40 
13.  TESTING  SYSTEMS  OF  VENTILATION. 

In  addition  to  testing  the  quality  of 
the  air,  as  previously  explained,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  determine  the  volume 
of  air  entering  or  leaving  a  room.  For 
this  purpose  an  anemometer,  or  air- 
meter,  is  used,  by  means  of  which  the 
velocity  at  the  register  may  be  deter- 
mined. Knowing  this,  and  knowing  the 
area  through  which  the  air  must  pass, 
the  volume  is  readily  determined. 

Air-pressures  may  be  determined  by 
means  of  the  ordinary  U  tube,  one  end 
being  connected  with  the  duct  or  flue, 
and  the  other  with  the  atmosphere,  the 
difference  in  pressure  being  indicated  by 
the  difference  in  level  of  the  water  in 
the  two  legs  of  the  tube.  This  reading 
of  pressure  differences  in  inches  of  water 
may  be  readily  transformed  into  pressure 
in  ounces  by  multiplying  by  .578 — this 
factor  being  the  equivalent,  in  ounces, 
of  the  pressure  due  to  a  head  of  one  inch 
of  water. 


41 


The  humidity  of  the  air  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  a  hygrometer,  an  instrument 
provided  with  two  standard  thermome- 
ters— one,  the  dry  bulb,  showing  the 
temperature  of  the  air,  the  other,  the 
wet  bulb,  the  temperature  due  to  evap- 
oration. When  the  air  is  saturated  no 
evaporation  takes  place  and  the  ther- 
mometers read  the  same.  The  dryer  the 
air,  the  more  rapid  the  evaporation  of 
water  from  the  wet  bulb,  and  the  lower 
the  temperature  of  that  thermometer,  in 
comparison  with  that  of  the  dry  bulb. 
The  greater  the  temperature  difference, 
the  lower  the  relative  humidity. 

A  table  is  provided  with  these  instru- 
ments, showing  the  relative  humidity 
corresponding  to  various  temperature 
differences. 

For  determining  temperatures  in  ordi- 
nary ventilating  work,  good  standard 
thermometers  are  all  that  are  necessary. 


42 


14.  VENTILATION  AND  ACOUSTICS. 

*  "  The  arguments  sometimes  urged 
against  the  upward  ventilation  of  audi- 
toriums because  of  the  alleged  inter- 
ference of  such  ventilation  with  their 
acoustic  properties  are  for  the  most  part 
fallacious  and  groundless.  Sound-waves 
are  disturbed  by  traveling  through  air  of 
unequal  density.  When  air  lacks  homo- 
geneity, because  of  decided  inequalities 
of  temperature  or  moisture,  the  travel  of 
sound  is  affected  in  somewhat  the  same 
manner  as  is  that  of  light  when  it  passes 
through  heated  air  rising  from  a  stove 
or  other  heat  source.  Heated  air  rising 
in  mass  and  in  column  form  from  a  floor 
register  through  the  cooler  air  of  a  room, 
or  cold  air  falling  in  reversed  fashion 
from  a  ceiling  opening  through  the 
warmer  air  of  a  room,  presents  an  obsta- 
cle to  the  even  movement  of  sound- 

*  Prof.   S.  H.  Woodbridge  in  Report  on  Heating  and 
Ventilating,  House  of  Representatives,  1899. 


43 

waves.  When,  however,  the  movement 
is  diffused  and  the  air  temperature  is 
approximately  even  throughout  the  whole 
mass,  that  slow  movement,  whether  up- 
ward or  downward,  has  no  appreciable 
effect  on  sound-travel. " 


44 


II.— DIFFERENT   SYSTEMS   OF  VEN- 
TILATION. 


1.  SYSTEMS  OF  VENTILATION. 

THE  fireplace  is  the  simplest  example 
of  exhaust  ventilation,  and  the  furnace 
the  simplest  means  for  securing  a  supply 
of  warm  fresh  air. 

With  other  systems  the  heat  of  the 
fire  is  first  transferred  to  a  medium,  wa- 
ter or  steam,  which  in  turn  warms  the 
air  passing  to  the  rooms. 

In  the  furnace  system  the  air  is  heated 
by  direct  contact  with  cast-iron  or  steel- 
plate  surfaces,  cold  air  being  brought 
into  the  space  between  the  body  of  the 
furnace  and  the  casing  by  a  box  or  duct 
connected  with  the  outdoor  air. 

Of  course  if  cellar  air  is  used,  the  fresh- 
air  supply  feature  is,  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent, lost,  the  supply  depending  upon 
the  tightness  of  basement  walls  and  win- 


45 

dows  against  the  in-leakage  of  fresh  air. 

The  indifference  of  the  dwellers  in 
houses  heated  by  furnaces,  in  many  parts 
of  the  country,  to  the  importance  of  hav- 
ing a  cold-air  box  for  a  fresh-air  supply, 
is  simply  astounding,  and  can  be  ex- 
plained only  by  assuming  a  widespread 
ignorance  of  the  bad  effects  on  health 
from  the  long-continued  breathing  of 
cellar  air. 

The  indirect  steam  or  hot-water  sys- 
tem works  on  the  same  general  principle 
as  the  furnace,  and  it  possesses  several  ad- 
vantages and  has  a  wider  range  of  appli- 
cation. Buildings  which  would  require 
several  furnaces  are  easily  heated  by  a 
single  boiler,  the  benches  of  indirect 
radiators  being  placed  near  the  base  of 
the  flues,  thus  avoiding  the  relatively 
long  pipes  common  in  furnace  heating. 
With  the  latter,  the  longer  the  pipes  the 
more  sluggish  the  flow  of  air  and  the 
greater  the  chance  of  failure  in  heating 
rooms  on  the  exposed  sides  during  strong 
winds. 


46 


Direct-indirect,  as  its  name  Amplies,  is 
a  compromise  between  direct  heating 
with  radiators  in  the  rooms,  and  indi- 
rect heating  with  radiators  suspended 
from  the  basement  ceiling  and  incased 
in  galvanized  iron  or  wood,  and  with 
cold-air  and  warm-air  ducts  connected 
with  the  spaces  below  and  above  these 
radiators. 

This  direct-indirect  system  is  a  great 
improvement  in  point  of  ventilation  over 
the  direct  system,  but  falls  far  short  of 
the  indirect  system  in  positive  results. 

The  greatest  difficulty  with  the  direct- 
indirect  method  is  experienced  in  mild 
weather,  when  a  constant  supply  of  fresh 
air  equivalent  to  that  required  in  cold 
weather  cannot  be  admitted  without  over- 
heating the  room,  since  it  must  pass  up 
over  the  radiating  surface. 

If  the  steam  is  shut  off,  the  air  enters 
at  the  outdoor  temperature,  which  may 
be  too  cold  for  comfort  in  the  room. 

With  this  method  of  heating,  the 
rooms  on  the  windward  side  of  a  build- 


47 

ing  are  excessively  ventilated,  while 
those  on  the  lee  side  receive  a  less  gener- 
ous supply  of  fresh  air  on  account  of  the 
tendency  to  a  vacuum  condition  existing 
on  that  side. 

Ordinary  indirect  systems,  commonly 
called  "gravity"  systems,  depend  solely 
on  the  difference  in  the  temperatures  of 
the  air  in  the  flues  and  the  air  outside,  to 
cause  the  desired  velocity.  This  differ- 
ence varies  with  changes  in  the  weather, 
and  consequently  the  flow  of  air  is  not 
constant,  becoming  more  sluggish  as  the- 
weather  grows  milder.  Winds  also  seri- 
ously affect  its  flow.  To  overcome  these- 
faults  the  "blower"  or  "fan"  system  is 
used. 

In  the  oft-quoted  words  of  the  lato 
Eobert  Briggs,  "  If  air  is  wanted  in  any 
particular  place,  at  any  particular  time,, 
it  must  be  put  there,  not  allowed  to  go. 
.  .  .  Xo  other  method  than  that  of 
impelling  air  by  direct  means,  with  a 
fan,  is  equally  independent  of  accident- 
ally natural  conditions,  equally  efficient 


48 


for  a  desired  result,  or  equally  controlla- 
ble to  suit  the  demands  of  those  who  are 
ventilated." 

The  "fan  "system  is  more  expensive 
than  others,  both  in  first  cost  and  in  run- 
ning expense,  but  the  results  are  far  su- 
perior to  those  attainable  by  any  other 
method. 

In  manufacturing  buildings  the 
<c  blower  "  system  is  installed  rather  as  a 
heating  system  than  as  a  ventilating  sys- 
tem. When  there  is  a  surplus  of  ex- 
haust steam,  the  greater  steam  consump- 
tion of  this  system  beyond  that  required 
b*  direct  radiation  is  of  no  moment. 
Tne  system  is  generally  arranged  in  its 
simplest  form  with  a  single  system  of 
Iiot-air  ducts  with  dampers  at  the  outlets. 

Manifestly  this  system  would  be  too 
crude  for  use  in  a  building  in  which  fans 
&re  installed  primarily  to  secure  a  nearly 
•constant  air  change. 

In  such  cases  the  system  is  commonly 
arranged  in  one  of  three  ways : 

1.  A  main  heater  with  tempered  air 


49 

by-pass  and  with  mixing-dampers  at  the 
entrance  to  ducts. 

2.  A  main  heater  arranged  to  supply 
air  at  approximately  70°  F.  to  the  rooms 
which  are  to  be  heated  by  direct  radia- 
tion. 

3.  A  main  heater  to  supply  air  at  from 
60°  to  70°  F.  to  the  ducts  leading  to  re- 
heaters  placed  near  the  base  of  the  flues. 

System  "1"  is  a  modification  of  the 
old  double-duct  system  with  mixing- 
dampers  at  the  base  of  flues,  and  is  com- 
monly used  in  connection  with  some 
method  of  temperature  regulation. 

If  hand  control  is  necessary,  the  double- 
duct  system,  one  for  hot  air  and  one  for 
tempered  air,  may  be  used  to  advantage, 
since  the  regulating  chains  connected 
with  the  mixing  dampers  may  then  lead 
directly  to  the  rooms. 

System  "  1  "  is  very  simple  in  its  ar- 
rangement, but  when  this  method  is  used 
the  temperature  of  the  rooms  is  affected 
by  winds  more  than  it  is  with  either 
system  "  2  "  or  "  3,"  since  the  windward 


50 

rooms  being  under  greater  pressure  from 
without  than  the  others,  secure  a  smaller 
supply  of  air  than  similar  rooms  on  the 
unexposed  sides.  The  air  will  follow 
the  lines  of  least  resistance.  The  heat- 
ing surface  being  concentrated  in  one 
place,  there  is  little  circulation  of  warm 
air  when  the  fan  is  not  in  use,  and  the 
building,  therefore,  becomes  colder  at 
night  and  requires  a  longer  time  to  warm 
up  in  the  morning  than  it  does  with 
either  system  "2"  or  "  3." 

System  "  2  "  has  been  widely  adopted. 
The  heating  and  ventilating  systems  are 
entirely  separate,  and  sufficient  radiating 
surface  is  installed  to  warm  the  rooms 
independently  of  the  air-supply.  In 
buildings  used  for  certain  purposes, 
where  a  "shut-down"  would  be  very 
serious,  this  system  possesses  an  advan- 
tage from  the  fact  that  in  the  event  of 
any  trouble  with  the  fan,  the  ventilation 
only  is  affected,  while  the  heating  goes  on 
without  interruption. 

This   system  is   particularly  effective 


51 

in  rooms  used  intermittently,  such  as 
assembly-halls  in  school-buildings.  The 
rooms  are  kept  warm  by  direct  radiation 
at  a  minimum  cost,  and  when  they  are 
occupied,  the  fresh-air  supply  ducts  and 
foul  air  exhaust  ducts  are  put  into  use. 

System  "  3  "  may  be  installed  at  less 
expense  than  system"  2,"  and  it  is  some- 
what more  positive  than  system  "  1," 
possessing  the  advantage  of  conducting 
only  tempered  air  through  the  ducts  in- 
stead of  air  at  a  higher  temperature,  as 
in  system  "  1,"  which  suffers  a  greater 
heat  loss  by  radiation.  System  "3"  is 
naturally  more  affected  by  winds  than 
is  system  "2,"  in  which  radiators  are 
placed  in  the  rooms;  but  since  the  re- 
heaters,  or  "supplementary  heaters," 
as  they  are  called,  are  placed  near  the 
rooms  which  they  are  to  heat,  there  is 
less  trouble  in  heating  exposed  rooms 
during  high  winds  than  is  experienced 
when  system  "  1 "  is  used. 


2.  FANS  AND  BLOWERS. 

W.  F.  Butler,  in  the  little  treatise  on 
Ventilation  which  this  one  supersedes, 
states  that  Dr.  Desaguliers  in  1723  was 
called  in  to  ventilate  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  that  after  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt by  means  of  heated  flues  which 
were  not  properly  used,  invented  a  cen- 
trifugal wheel  or  blowing-machine  ar- 
ranged to  force  the  air  either  into  or  out 
of  the  House  as  required. 

The  type  of  fan  commonly  used  for 
forcing  air  through  a  system  of  ducts  is 
known  as  a  "  blower/'  and  consists  of  a 
wheel  of  the  paddle  type  incased  in  a 
steel-plate  housing.  The  fan-wheel  is 
generally  made  with  radial  blades,  but  in 
the  best  work  these  are  curved  in  order 
to  reduce  the  whirring  noise  caused  by 
rapid  rotation. 

The  type  of  fan  described  is  used  to 
force  the  air  through  long  lengths  of 
ducts  'and  pipes  without  an  excessive 
consumption  of  power. 


53 

The  chief  advantage  this  type  of  fan 
possesses  over  the  propeller  or  disk  type 
is  that  it  delivers  a  large  volume  of  air 
against  considerable  pressure  with  a  con- 
sumption of  power  small  when  compared 
with  that  required  by  the  latter  type. 

These  are  used,  as  a  rule,  in  connec- 
tion with  short  ducts  of  large  area,  in 
which  the  velocity  is  low,  or  they  are 
connected  with  vertical  vent-flues. 

It  is  very  important  in  using  this  type 
of  fan  to  see  that  the  resistance  inter- 
posed to  the  passage  of  air  through  the 
ducts  is  slight,  as  it  consumes  an  ex- 
cessive amount  of  power,  and  delivers  a 
relatively  small  volume  of  air  when  op- 
erating against  considerable  friction  or 
pressure. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  propeller 
fans  installed  where  blowers  should  be 
used,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  very  impor- 
tant that  a  proper  selection  be  made  if 
economy  in  operation  is  to  be  secured. 
Blowers  should  be  used  for  long  ducts  or 
with  high  velocities;  propeller  fans  for 


54 

short  ducts  and  low  velocities.  The  lat- 
ter are  used  chiefly  for  exhausting  air, 
although  they  may  be  employed  to  ad- 
vantage for  supplying  air  to  buildings  of 
relatively  small  size. 

3.  PLENUM  AND  EXHAUST  OR  VACUUM 
SYSTEMS  OF  VENTILATION  COMPARED. 

The  plenum  system  is  a  pressure  sys- 
tem designed  to  force  air  into  a  build- 
ing, creating  a  slight  pressure  therein, 
and  overcoming  to  a  certain  extent  the 
in-leakage  of  cold  air. 

The  air-supply  may  be  taken  from  a 
source  the  surroundings  and  condition 
of  which  are  known,  thus  insuring  its 
purity,  and  when  necessary  this  air  may 
be  filtered  by  passing  it  through  cheese- 
cloth screens. 

The  exhaust  or  vacuum  system  is  a 
system  of  ventilation  designed  to  exhaust 
the  air  from  a  building,  creating  a  ten- 
dency toward  a  slight  vacuum  therein. 

With  the  exhaust  method  alone,  the 


55 

air  which  takes  the  place  of  that  drawn 
from  the  rooms,  comes  from  uncertain 
sources  which  may  not  be  favorable  to  a 
pure  supply. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  to  suppose 
that  with  the  exhaust  system  all  the  air 
required  to  take  the  place  of  that  re- 
moved will  flow  in  or  be  drawn  in 
through  the  flues  leading  from  furnaces 
or  indirect  radiation  when  these  systems 
of  heating  are  used.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  air  which  is  to  take  the  place  of  that 
removed,  tends  to  follow  the  lines  of  least 
resistance,  and  much  of  it  is  drawn  in 
around  doors  and  windows,  causing  un- 
comfortable draughts. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  the  air  supplied 
with  a  plenum  system  will  not  pass  out 
of  the  room  through  the  vent-flues  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose,  but  instead,  much 
of  it  will  pass  out  around  windows  and 
doors,  especially  if  theso  happen  to  be  on 
the  lee  side  of  the  building. 

The  above  considerations  lead  natu- 
rally to  the  conclusion  that  the  best  ar- 


56 

rangement  is  to  combine  the  plenum  and 
exhaust  systems,  using  a  supply  fan  of 
greater  capacity  than  the  exhaust  fan  in 
order  that  the  air  of  the  room  may  be 
under  a  slight  pressure,  thus  preventing, 
in  a  measure,  the  in-leakage  of  cold  air. 

4.   ASPIKATING  COILS  YEESUS  Ex 
HAUST  FANS. 

The  removal  of  foul  air  from  rooms  is 
generally  accomplished  by  means  of  as- 
pirating coils  placed  in  the  flues.  These 
to  be  effective  should  be  placed  as  near 
the  opening  into  the  flue  as  possible. 

Where  the  flues  are  small  this  cannot 
be  done  readily,  and  the  flues  must  be 
collected  in  the  attic  in  a  chamber  in 
which  is  placed  the  aspirating  coil. 

This  should  be  made  up  of  pipes  placed 
in  an  inclined  position  to  avoid  cutting 
down  the  flue  area,  and  so  arranged  that 
all  the  air  will  pass  across  them. 

Coils  strung  around  the  sides  of  the 
air  chamber  or  shaft,  leaving  a  large 
open  space  in  the  middle,  are  compara- 
tively ineffective. 


57 

Since  the  flue  action  sought  is  merely 
that  of  a  chimney,  the  higher  the  column 
of  hot  air,  the  greater  the  "  pull"  and 
the  velocity  of  the  air  in  the  flue.  Ac- 
cordingly, it  is  desirable  that  all  vent- 
flues  should  have  sufficient  height  and 
area  of  discharge,  or  should  be  equipped 
with  aspirating  coils  to  provide  for  the 
required  volume  of  air  when  the  outdoor 
temperature  is  from  40°  to  50°  F. 

The  mistake  is  often  made  of  install- 
ing aspirating  coils  in  large  buildings, 
where  electrical  exhaust  fans  would  be 
far  more  efficient  and  at  the  same  time 
less  expensive  to  operate  in  the  handling 
of  a  given  volume  of  air. 

The  delivery  of  air  by  a  fan  is  not  af- 
fected to  any  great  extent  by  atmospheric 
changes,  as  is  the  case  with  an  aspirating 
coil,  which,  with  a  rise  in  the  outside 
temperature,  has  less  and  less  effect  in 
causing  a  flo\v  of  air. 

A  fan  is-  decidedly  more  efficient  than 
a  steam  coil  for  moving  air,  and  while 
its  first  cost  is  greater  than  the  coil,  that 


58 


fact  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  its  introduction  in  good -sized 
buildings,  as  the  saving  in  operation  over 
the  heat  wasted  by  a  coil  would  soon 
make  up  for  any  difference  in  the  cost  of 
installation. 

5.  DOWNWARD  VENTILATION. 

The  downward  method  of  ventilation 
is,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the 
only  practicable  one.  In  general,  the 
most  effective  and  economical  ventilation 
in  which  the  air  is  chilled  during  its  pas- 
sage through  a  room,  is  by  the  downward 
system.  The  air  entering  at  the  warm- 
air  inlet  rises  to  the  ceiling.  To  dis- 
tribute this  air  and  make  it  effective  in 
ventilating,  it  must  be  brought  down  to 
the  seating  space  before  escaping  to  the 
ventilating-flues.  With  rooms  having 
outside  exposure,  such  as  school-rooms, 
the  air  entering  at  the  warm -air  inlet 
after  passing  across  the  ceiling  and  corn- 
ing in  contact  with  the  cold  outside  walls, 
becomes  somewhat  chilled  and  descends 


59 


to  the  floor,  the  continuous  inflow  of 
fresh  air  increasing  this  action.  With 
inlets  and  outlets  properly  placed  with 
reference  to  the  exposed  walls,  this 
method  gives  very  satisfactory  results 
when  a  sufficient  volume  of  fresh  air  for 
dilution  is  supplied. 

In  rooms  having  little  or  no  exposure, 
the  entering  air  must  be  admitted  at  a 
temperature  below  that  of  the  room, 
otherwise  the  heat  given  off  by  the  occu- 
pants will  more  than  offset  the  loss  of 
heat  through  the  walls,  and  will  cause  a 
rise  in  temperature  beyond  the  point  of 
comfort.  The  heat  given  off  by  each 
person  is  practically  the  same  as  that  pro-r 
duced  by  a  burning  candle. 

In  case  it  is  necessary,  for  the  reasons 
above  stated,  to  introduce  the  air  at  a 
temperature  of  from  10  to  15  degrees  be- 
low that  of  the  room,  great  care  must  be 
taken  in  the  arrangement  of  openings  to 
avoid  objectionable  down-draughts. 

The  air-currents  must  be  broken  up 
and  finely  divided,  otherwise  downward 


currents  of  cold  air  will  be  felt  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  room.  This  condition 
will  not  occur  with  the  downward  sys- 
tem, except  in  cases  where  the  air  must 
be  admitted  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
that  at  which  it  is  desired  to  maintain 
the  air  of  room.  No  trouble  from  down- 
draughts  need  be  experienced  in  rooms 
where  the  loss  of  heat  through  the  walls 
and  glass  is  greater  than  the  heat  given 
off  by  the  occupants,  since  in  such  rooms 
the  air  must  be  admitted  at  a  tempera- 
ture considerably  in  excess  of  70°  F., 
and,  therefore,  will  not  have  a  tendency 
to  descend  at  once  to  the  floor,  but  will 
gradually  fall  as  it  becomes  chilled  along 
the  exposed  walls. 

With  the  downward  system,  as  applied 
in  tlfeaters  and  halls,  the  warm  air  ex- 
haled from  the  lungs  is  met  by  the  de- 
scending currents  of  air  entering  at  or 
near  the  ceiling.  This  mixture  of  the 
two  must  be  re-breathed  before  it  can 
reach  the  ventilating  openings  placed  in 
or  near  the  floor;  whereas,  with  the  up- 


61 

ward  system,  the  exhalations  are  carried 
at  once  toward  the  outlets  in  the  ceiling. 

Effective  downward  ventilation  of  au- 
dience-rooms is  practicable,  if  a  sufficient 
volume  of  air  is  used  for  the  purpose  and 
if  inlets  and  outlets  are  properly  located. 
To  secure  the  best  results,  the  inlets 
must  be  arranged  as  stated  above,  and 
the  outlets  located  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  each  occupant.  To  prevent 
vitiated  air  from  the  gallery  and  balco- 
nies reaching  the  main  floor,  the  foul  air 
discharge  openings  from  them  must  have 
a  stronger  exhaust  action  than  those  in 
the  main  floor. 

In  regard  to  the  volume  of  air  to  be 
supplied  with  this  system,  Mr.  A.  R, 
Wolff  in  a  pamphlet  on  The  Ventilation 
of  Buildings,  recommends  an  air-supply 
of  3000  cu.  ft.  per  occupant  per  hour; 
but  states  that  for  theaters  having  a  large 
space  per  capita,  and  in  which  the  atmos- 
phere is  perfectly  fresh  at  the  outset,  and 
where  the  space  is  occupied  for  only  two 
or  three  hours  at  a  time,  the  air-supply 


62 


may  be  safely  reduced  to  2000  to  2500 
cu.  ft.  These  amounts  range  from  about 
33  to  50  cu.  ft.  per  minute,  as  against  20 
cu.  ft.  per  minute  for  excellent  results 
with  the  upward  system. 

The  downward  system  is  very  ineffec- 
tive in  giving  relief  in  hot  and  muggy 
Weather,  and  is  out  of  the  question  for 
rooms  in  which  smoking  is  to  be  indulged 
in.  It  is,  therefore,  important  when 
possible  to  so  arrange  the  downward  sys- 
tem of  ventilation  that  it  may  be  made 
reversible  to  provide  for  these  conditions. 
The  German  House  of  Parliament  is  ar- 
ranged with  such  a  system,  operated  as 
follows :  For  an  hour  or  so  before  occu- 
pancy, warm  air  is  admitted  at  the  top 
and  drawn  out  at  the  bottom.  As  the 
chamber  is  filled,  the  system  is  reversed. 
Tests  on  the  down-draught  system 
showed  the  air  in  the  room  to  be  very 
oppressive,  especially  in  muggy  weather, 
whereas  when  the  air  was  let  in  at  the 
bottom,  after  being  moistened  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  warming  chamber,  it 


63 

was  found  to  have  no  unpleasant  effects 
whatever. 

Another  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  in 
downward  ventilation  is  that  if  the  sys- 
tem is  to  be  used  in  summer,  the  air 
passing  through  the  ducts  in  the  attic 
space  is  likely  to  become  so  heated  that 
it  is  rendered  unfit  for  use. 

6.  UPWARD  VENTILATION. 

Another  method  of  ventilation  consists 
in  removing  the  impurities  instead  of  di- 
luting them.  This  is  the  upward  system. 
The  heat  given  off  by  each  person  sitting 
in  a  room  causes  an  upward  current  in. 
the  surrounding  air.  If,  then,  an  ample 
supply  of  pure  air  is  admitted  at  each 
seat,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  cause 
no  uncomfortable  draught,  the  space  oc- 
cupied by  each  person  will  be  continu- 
ously and  thoroughly  flushed,  and  all 
impurities  given  off  will  be  carried  up 
with  the  ascending  current  of  air  toward 
the  ceiling,  at  which  point  the  foul  air 
will  be  removed  through  suitable  open- 


64 


ings.  These  openings  should  connect 
with  dncts  leading  either  to  exhaust  fans 
or  to  flues  in  which  are  placed  aspirating 
coils.  This  method  of  ventilation  is  gen- 
erally employed  in  theaters  and  legisla- 
tive halls,  where  the  seats  are  fixed  in 
position. 

AVith  upward  ventilation,  where  each 
person  is  provided  with  an  individual  air- 
supply  and  all  impurities  are  at  once  re- 
moved, a  smaller  volume  of  air  is  neces- 
sary than  with  the  downward  system, 
where  the  atmosphere  is  maintained  at  a 
certain  degree  of  purity  by  dilution. 

It  is  important  in  either  the  upward  or 
the  downward  system  that  the  volume  of 
air  supplied  should  exceed  that  of  the  air 
removed  by  exhaust  fans,  so  that  the  air 
in  the  rooms  will  be  under  a  slight  pres- 
sure; otherwise  cold  air  will  be  drawn  into 
the  building  through  doors  and  windows, 
causing  draughts,  or,  in  the  case  of  thea- 
ters, smoke  will  be  drawn  in  from  the 
foyer  and  smoking-rooms. 

It  is  important  that  the  ceiling  be  kept 


I  UNIVFRSITT 
65  M 

at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  air  of 
the  room,  as  in  the  case  of  ceilings 
chilled  by  skylights  or  roofs  the  air  com- 
ing in  contact  with  them  becomes  cooled 
and  falls  toward  the  floor  in  objection- 
able draughts. 

These  down-draughts  may  be  over- 
come by  placing  coils  or  radiators  near 
the  ceiling  to  intercept  them,  or  by 
slightly  warming  the  attic  space. 

The  coils  referred  to  may  generally  be 
hidden  from  view  by  placing  them  above 
cornices. 


III.— THE    VENTILATION    OF    DIF- 
FERENT CLASSES  OF  BUILDINGS. 


1.  KESIDESTCES. 

wellings,  furnaces  or  indirect  steam 
or  hot-water  radiation  furnish  the  desired 
supply  of  air,  provided  the  ducts  are 
properly  arranged.  In  order  to  heat 
houses  efficiently  in  severe  weather  by 
either  of  these  systems,  it  is  necessary  to 
change  the  air  in  them  about  once  every 
fifteen  minutes,  thus  giving  an  ample 
supply  to  the  usual  number  of  occupants. 
In  fact,  many  systems  are  arranged,  to 
have  the  stories  above  the  first  heated  by 
direct  radiation,  dependence  for  fresh 
air  being  placed  upon  open  windows  in 
the  sleeping-rooms. 

One  great  advantage  of  a  warm-air  sys- 
tem, whether  a  furnace  or  an  indirect 
steam  or  hot- water  apparatus,  is  that  the 
rooms  cannot  be  heated  without  at  the 


67 

same  time  supplying  them  with  air, 
which,  if  the  basement  ducts  are  properly 
arranged,  is  relatively  pure  air. 

The  direct-indirect  system,  in  which 
the  radiators  are  located  in  the  rooms 
and  connected  with  cold-air  ducts  lead- 
ing through  the  walls,  gives  a  limited 
air-supply;  but  it  does  not  give  as  great 
a  supply  as  in  the  case  of  indirect  heating 
with  all  the  surface  in  the  basement,  and 
with  cold-air  ducts  leading  to  and  warm- 
air  ducts  leading  from  the  "benches" 
or  "stacks "of  indirect  radiators. 

The  "blower"  system  is  seldom  in- 
stalled in  ordinary  residences,  although 
it  is  not  uncommon  in  the  larger  ones 
in  our  principal  cities,  particularly  New 
York.  In  the  latter  class  of  buildings, 
even  where  the  system  is  not  used 
throughout,  it  is  advisable  to  adopt  it 
for  the  ball-rooms  and  for  those  rooms 
likely  to  be  occasionally  well  filled  with 
guests. 


68 


2.  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS. 

In  small  school  buildings  having  from 
four  to  six  rooms,  the  furnace  system, 
when  properly  installed,  gives  good  re- 
sults at  about  one  half  the  first  cost  of 
the  indirect  steam  system,  which  is  the 
one  commonly  used  in  buildings  ranging 
in  size  from  those  having  the  number  of 
rooms  stated,  to  those  having  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  rooms. 

Larger  buildings  should  have  mechan- 
ical ventilation,  and  if  proper  attendance 
can  be  assured,  such  a  system  may  be  ap- 
propriately used  in  buildings  having  as 
few  as  eight  rooms. 

The  details  of  furnace  heating  in 
school  buildings  differ  from  those  fol- 
lowed in  dwellings.  The  flues  are  much 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  space  heated, 
and  horizontal  runs  are  practically  elimi- 
nated by  placing  the  furnaces  directly  at 
the  base  of  the  flues..  Furthermore,  the 
heat  is  controlled  by  mixing-dampers, 


69 


which  regulate  the  temperature  of  the 
air  without  seriously  affecting  the  volume 
delivered. 

The  air  discharged  from  the  rooms 
should  be  made  to  pass  through  flues  the 
air-flow  in  which  is  accelerated  by  a  heater 
or  by  steam  coils,  otherwise  the  flow  will 
be  very  sluggish  in  mild  weather,  since 
the  velocity  derJends  upon  the  difference 
in  the  temperatures  of  the  air  inside  and 
outside  of  the  flue. 

Indirect  steam-heating  systems  are 
arranged  somewhat  in  the  same  manner 
as  furnaces,  benches  of  radiators  taking 
the  place  of  the  latter  at  the  base  of  the 
flues,  and  mixing-dampers  being  used  to 
control  the  air  temperature. 

Each  vent-flue  should  have  an  aspira- 
ting heater,  placed  as  short  a  distance 
above  the  opening  from  the  room  as  pos- 
sible, for  the  lower  the  heating-coil  with 
reference  to  the  top  of  the  flue,  the 
greater  the  velocity  of  air  created.  It  is 
of  course  sometimes  necessary  to  group 
the  flues  in  the  attic  in  an  aspirating 


70 

chamber,  but  this  method  is  not  so  effec- 
tive as  the  one  just  described. 

Assembly-halls  used  intermittently 
should  be  heated  by  direct  radiation,  and 
the  air-supply  and  ventilation  should  be 
shut  off  except  when  the  hall  is  occupied. 

The  coat-rooms  should  be  heated  by 
direct  radiation  and  should  have  ample 
exhaust  ventilation.  The  principal  toilet- 
rooms  should  receive  very  careful  atten- 
tion in  the  planning  of  a  system,  and 
positive  exhaust  ventilation  should  be 
provided.  It"  is  not  advisable  to  force 
air  into  such  rooms,  since  it  may  leak  out 
again  into  others;  but  with  direct  radia- 
tion for  heating,  and  with  a  strong  ex- 
haust ventilation,  the  flow  of  air  is  bound 
to  be  into  them.  All  ventilating  flues 
should  be  connected  with  an  exhaust 
fan,  or  should  have  steam  coils  supplied 
by  a  small  steam  boiler  to  maintain  heat 
in  them  during  mild  weather  when  the 
main  boiler  is  not  in  use. 


3.  CHURCHES. 

Small  churches  are  generally  heated 
by  furnaces,  which  furnish  a  supply  of 
air,  and  possess  an  advantage  from  the 
fact  that  the  heating  may  be  quickly 
accomplished,  and  that  when  no  longer 
needed,  the  fires  may  be  allowed  to  go 
out.  No  care  need  be  taken  to  prevent 
freezing,  as  is  the  case  with  steam  and 
hot- water  systems. 

For  larger  buildings  the  ' *  fan-furnace  " 
system  is  used,  giving  a  more  positive 
air-supply  than  with  simple  furnaces. 
The  indirect  steam  system  gives  good  re- 
sults in  buildings  of  this  class;  and  the 
best  results  are  usually  obtained  by  hav- 
ing the  warm  air  enter  through  registers 
placed  either  at  the  ends  of  pews  or  in 
the  walls  about  7  feet  above  the  floor. 

The  exhaust  ventilation  takes  place 
through  openings  in  the  front  of  the 
platform,  the  space  below  it  being  con- 
nected with  an  exhaust  duct. 

Fan  systems  may  be  arranged  in  such 


buildings  in  a  variety  of  ways,  the  gen- 
eral methods  being  about  the  same  as 
those  described  for  school  buildings. 
One  of  the  simplest  methods  is  that  of 
forcing  the  supply  of  tempered  air 
through  supplementary  heaters  placed  at 
the  base  of  flues,  these  flues  terminating 
at  registers  in  the  window-sills  or  walls. 
The  air-supply  is  thus  delivered  around 
the  entire  periphery  of  the  room,  and  is 
then  drawn  through  the  seating  space  to 
properly  located  openings  in  the  ends  of 
the  seats,  or  in  the  front  of  the  platform. 
An  exhaust  fan  is  connected  with  the 
ducts  leading  from  these  openings. 

A  very  simple  but  effective  method  of 
supplying  air  to  churches  is  that  of  using 
the  entire  space  under  the  auditorium  as 
a  "plenum  "  chamber,  tightly  caulking  or 
weather-stripping  the  basement  windows 
and  other  places  where  the  air  would  be 
likely  to  escape,  forcing  a  liberal  supply 
of  fresh  tempered  air  into  this  space  and 
allowing  it  to  escape  through  openings 
which  are  located  under  the  seats  in  a 


manner  similar  in  general  arrangement 
to  that  in  which  they  are  disposed  in 
theaters.  The  details  for  church  work, 
however,  are  somewhat  different  from 
the  arrangement  in  theaters,  as  the  air 
issues  from  a  long  slot  in  the  lower  side 
of  ducts  placed  immediately  under  the 
seats  where  Ihey  do  not  show.  Vertical 
supply  connections  are  made  with  these 
ducts  at  the  ends  of  the  pews.  Of  course 
there  is  considerable  leakage  of  air  when 
this  method  is  used,  but  this  is  not  a 
serious  matter,  as  the  ventilating  appar- 
atus is  in  operation  for  only  a  few  hours 
each  week.  Its  simplicity  commends  it. 
The  heating  of  an  auditorium  which  is 
supplied  with  air  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed is  accomplished  by  direct  radia- 
tors located,  as  a  rule,  in  recesses  pro- 
vided under  the  windows,  these  radiators 
being  screened  by  ornamental  register 
faces. 

With  the  forced-air  supply  issuing 
through  openings  under  the  seats  as  de- 
scribed, no  ventilating  flues  whatever  are 


74 

required,  as  the  air  will  readily  escape 
through  the  crevices  in  walls  and  ceilings. 

By  the  use  of  electric  fans  the  very 
desirable  results  of  a  forced-air  supply 
and  exhaust  ventilation  may  be  obtained 
even  in  small  churches.  The  initial  out- 
lay is  not  great  where  good  results  are 
considered  necessary,  and  the  running 
expense,  even  with  a  high  rate  charged 
for  electric  power,  amounts  to  but  little, 
since  the  apparatus  is  in  use  for  so  short 
a  time  each  week. 

The  air-supply  per  occupant  in 
churches  need  be  only  about  two  thirds 
of  that  required  for  schools,  since  the 
amount  of  space  per  person  is  much 
greater  and  the  period  of  occupancy  is 
considerably  shorter.  Twenty  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  per  occupant  is  consid- 
ered a  fair  allowance. 

4.  HALLS  AND  COURT-KOOMS. 

Small  assembly-halls  may  be  efficiently 
ventilated  by  the  indirect  system,  with 
the  ducts  furnished  with  mixing-damp- 


75 

ers ;  and  the  exhaust  ventilation  may  be 
effected  through,  heated  flues.  If  the 
hall  is  large  enough  to  warrant  it,  elec- 
tric supply  and  exhaust  fans  should  be 
provided. 

In  legislative  halls  with  fixed  seats, 
mechanical  ventilation  is  generally  pro- 
vided and  arranged  in  the  same  manner 
as  for  upward  ventilation  in  theaters,  the 
fresh  air  being  admitted  near  the  seats, 
through  openings  in  the  risers  to  the 
several  tiers,  or  in  the  desk-supports. 

5.  THEATERS. 

In  the  ventilation  of  theaters  by  the 
upward  system,  the  space  under  the  au- 
ditorium is  used  as  a  plenum-chamber, 
and  there  are  openings  under  the  seats 
or  in  perforated  chair-legs.  In  this  way 
each  person  receives  an  individual  air-' 
supply,  which,  after  passing  over  him, 
ascends  to  the  ceiling,  where  the  vitiated 
air  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  an  exhaust 
fan. 

Such  systems  require  only  about  twenty 


76 


cubic  feet  of  air  per  occupant  per  minute 
to  give  good  results.  The  air  exhaled 
from  the  lungs,  being  warmer  than  the 
surrounding  air,  rises,  and  with  the  up- 
ward system  the  exhalations  are  removed 
without  being  again  brought  into  contact 
with  the  occupants.  Particular  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  in  theater  ventilation 
to  the  exhaust  ventilation  of  foyers  and 
smoking-rooms,  in  order  to  insure  an  in- 
ward current  of  air  into  these  rooms 
through  doorways  or  other  openings. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  secure 
proper  ventilation  of  theaters  without 
employing  fans. 

6.  HOSPITALS  AND  ASYLUMS. 

In  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  hos- 
pitals, furnaces  are  rarely  employed  ex- 
cept in  buildings  of  very  small  size. 

The  direct-indirect  system  is  of  course 
preferable  to  direct  radiation  for  this 
service,  as  in  cold  weather  a  good  air- 
supply  can  be  secured.  In  mild  weather, 
however,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  an  ade- 


77 

quate  air-supply  without  overheating  the 
rooms. 

The  plain  gravity  indirect  steam  or 
hot- water  system  affords  a  simple  and 
fairly  effective  method  of  supplying  air 
to  buildings  not  large  enough  to  warrant 
the  use  of  a  complete  mechanical  system. 
Mixing-dampers  should  be  provided.  If 
electric  fans  can  be  employed  in  combi- 
nation with  indirect  radiation,  the  sys- 
tem will  be  more  effective,  and  especially 
so  in  mild  weather. 

With  any  of  the  above  systems  for 
supplying  air,  exhaust  ventilation  should 
be  provided  by  means  of  either  heated 
flues  or  fans. 

In  the  main  wards  the  air  may  be  ad- 
mitted through  openings  below  the  win- 
dows and  between  the  beds,  and  ex- 
hausted through  several  large  fireplaces 
or  through  openings  near  the  floor. 

A  more  perfect  distribution  of  the  air 
is  secured  by  placing  a  vent-opening  un- 
der each  bed.  Such  openings,  if  used, 
should  be  located  a  few  inches  above  the 


78 


floor,  to  prevent  their  becoming  clogged 
with  dust,  as  would  be  the  case  with 
floor  registers. 

The  blower  system  is  particularly  ef- 
fective in  hospitals  where  a  continuous 
and  large  volume  of  air  is  necessary. 
This  system  is  commonly  arranged  in 
conjunction  with  direct  radiation,  the 
latter  being  sufficient  to  heat  the  build- 
ing, and  the  blowers  supplying  tempered 
air  to  the  rooms.  With  this  arrange- 
ment, in  case  anything  should  happen 
to  the  blower,  engine,  or  motor,  while  it 
would  interrupt  the  ventilation,  it  would 
not  affect  the  heating.  The  temperature 
of  the  air-supply  and  that  of  the  rooms 
should  be  controlled  by  thermostats. 

The  blower  system  may  also  be  ar- 
ranged with  supplementary  heaters,  and 
in  certain  cases  the  double-duct  system, 
with  mixing-dampers,  may  be  employed. 

For  the  heating  of  hospitals  for  the  in- 
sane, the  registers  should  be  of  special 
design  known  as  the  "  asylum  "  pattern, 


79 


and  operated  by  means  of  a  key.  The 
fret-work  on  such  registers  is  designed 
to  prevent  the  inmates  from  passing  their 
fingers  through  the  register-faces. 

Floor  registers  must  never  be  used  in 
such  rooms.  The  inlet  registers  should 
be  placed  6  or  7  feet  above  the  floor, 
and  the  vent  registers  near  the  floor.  It 
would  be  out  of  the  question  to  place 
radiators  in  rooms  occupied  by  insane 
patients,  unless  such  radiators  were 
placed  above  reach,  or  were  screened. 

7.  OFFICE  BUILDINGS. 

Provision  is  rarely  made  for  the  proper 
ventilation  of  office  buildings.  Direct- 
indirect  radiation  is  not  infrequently  in- 
stalled, giving,  under  certain  conditions, 
a  reasonable  supply  of  air  to  rooms 
having  few  occupants.  Exhaust  venti- 
lation of  toilet-rooms  by  means  of  fans, 
is  generally  provided.  The  rooms  below 
grade  require  careful  attention,  a  change 
of  air  in  engine-rooms  and  boiler-rooms 
once  in  every  five  minutes  being  not  too 


80 

frequent.  This  is  accomplished  by  me- 
chanical means,  both  as  to  the  supply  and 
the  discharge,  unless  a  space  around  the 
smoke-stack  is  provided.  The  ordinary 
vertical -flue  arrangement  cannot  be  used 
in  modern  office  buildings,  because  in  the 
lower  stories  there  are  generally  few  par- 
titions, and  the  windows  are  so  large  that 
insufficient  available  space  is  left  for  flues. 

The  corridor  system  in  connection 
with  blowers  overcomes  this  difficulty. 

In  this  system  the  air-supply  is  taken 
from  the  roof  or  from  a  court  or  area; 
fans  in  the  basement  discharge  this  air 
to  a  system  of  ducts  placed  above  false 
ceilings  in  the  corridors;  registers  dis- 
charge warm  air  near  the  ceiling  line  of 
-each  office;  and  circulation  is  maintained 
through  the  rooms  by  means  of  register- 
faces  placed  near  the  floor  and  connecting 
Tvith  the  corridors,  from  which  the  air 
< escapes  up  the  stairways  and  elevator- 
ishafts,  or  through  toilet-rooms,  to  open- 
ings at  the  top  of  the  building. 

A  more  perfect  and  at  the  same  time 


81 

a  more  expensive  system  is  one  in  which 
radiators  are  used. in  each  room  to  coun- 
teract the  loss  of  heat  through  the  walls 
and  windows,  and  in  which  a  supply  of 
air  at  about  70°  F.  is  brought  in  to  pro- 
vide for  ventilation.  This  system  is, 
however,  far  more  expensive,  but  the 
heating  of  the  building,  especially  dur- 
ing high  winds,  is  more  uniform  than 
with  the  ordinary  blower  system  intro- 
ducing air  to  the  rooms  at  a  temperature* 
of  from  110°  to  130°  F. 

8.  DEPARTMENT  STOKES. 

At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the 
modern  department  store  requires  such 
a  large  supply  of  fresh  air,  that  it  can  be 
secured  in  no  other  practicable  way  than 
by  the  use  of  fans. 

The  fresh  air  is  drawn  by  basement 
fans  from  the  roof  or  from  openings  some 
distance  above  the  sidewalk,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  reasonably  free  from  dust. 

It  is  not  customary  to  install  fresh-air 
flues  and  vent-flues  in  the  upper  stories, 


82 

because,  owing  to  the  large  window  area, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  space  for 
them.  These  stories  are  generally  heated 
by  direct  radiation.  The  blower  system 
permits  a  better  arrangement  for  heating 
the  vestibules  than  any  other,  as  re- 
lieaters  having  a  large  amount  of  surface, 
&nd  through  which  air  is  forced  and 
heated  to  a  high  temperature,  may  be 
placed  in  the  basement.  This  air  is  then 
discharged  through  registers  or  screens 
into  the  vestibules,  where  it  becomes 
mixed  with  the  incoming  cold  air.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  provide  too  lib- 
erally for  heating  these  spaces,  as  at  cer- 
tain seasons,  which  are  generally  the 
•coldest  ones,  the  doors  are  kept  practi- 
cally wide  open  by  the  crowds  surging 
in  and  out. 

9.  MA^UFACTUKING  BUILIXINGS. 

The  simplest  arrangement  of  the 
"blower  system  in  manufacturing  build- 
ings consists  in  locating  the  fan  and 
heater  at  about  the  middle  of  the 


83 


shop,  discharging  the  heat  through  gal- 
vanized-iron  ducts-  suspended  overhead 
and  leading  toward  the  ends  of  the 
building,  and  having  a  series  of  outlets, 
through  which  the  hot  air  is  discharged 
against  the  walls.  This  air  is  then 
drawn  back  to  the  heater  and  is  "  rota- 
ted/' A  fresh-air  connection  should  be 
made  with  the  outside  of  the  building, 
to  be  used  when  necessary  for  ventilation. 

Blower  systems  in  shops  are  not  gen- 
erally installed  for  the  purpose  of  venti- 
lating them,  but  are  used  primarily  for 
heating.  In  textile  mills  and  other  fac- 
tories several  stories  in  height,  flues  may 
be  carried  up  on  the  outside  brick  walls 
with  outlets  on  each  floor,  the  blower 
forcing  hot  air  into  the  base  of  these 
flues  through  underground  ducts. 

This  makes  a  very  convenient  system, 
and  presents  a  better  appearance  than 
one  in  which  galvanized-iron  ducts  are 
strung  about  the  rooms;  but  the  system 
must,  of  course,  be  incorporated  into  the 
general  building  plans. 


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SCIENTIFIC   PUBLICATIONS.  25 

shape  from  end  to  end;  and  showing  how  to  get  out 

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No.  60.— STRENGTH  OF  WROUGHT-IRON  BRIDGE  MEM- 
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ING. By  W.  P.  Gerhard.  Sixth  edition.  Re- 
vised. 

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DECIMALS. 

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Thompson.    With  ivotes  by  F.  L.  Pope.    Third 

edition. 
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FORMULA."    By  P.  J.  Flynn. 
No.  68.— STEAM-HEATING.     By  Robert    Briggs.       Third 

edition,  revised,  with  additions  by  A.  R.  W?lff. 
No.  69.— CHEMICAL   PROBLEMS.    By  Prof.  J.  C.  Foye. 

Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
No.  70.— EXPLOSIVE   MATERIALS.  John  P.  Wisser,  U.  S.  A. 

No.  71.— DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY.  By  John  Hopkinson, 
J.  N.  Shoolbred,  and  R.  E.  Day. 

No.  73.-TOPOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING.  By  George  J. 
Specht,  Prof.  A.  S.  Hardy,  John  B.  McMaster,  and 
H.  F.  Walling. 

No,  78.-SYMBOLIO  ALGEBRA;  OR,  THE  ALGEBRA  OF 
ALGEBRAIC  NUMBERS.  By  Prof.  W.  Cain. 

No.  74.— TESTING  MACHINES  :  THEIR  HISTORY,  CON- 
STRUCTION, AND  USE.  By  Arthur  V.  Abbott. 

No,  75.— EECENT  PROGRESS  IN  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC 
MACHINES.  Being  a  Supplement  to  Dynamo- 
Electric  Machinery.  By  Prof.  Sylvanus  P. 
Thompson. 

NO.  76.— MODERN  REPRODUCTIVE  GRAPHIC  PRO- 
CESSES. By  Lieut.  James  S,  Pettit,  U.S.  A. 

No.  77.-STADIA  SURVEYING.  The  Theory  of  Stadia 
Measurements.  By  Arthur  Winslow. 

No.  78.-THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR,  AND  ITS 
USE.  By  W.  B.  Le  Van. 

No.  79.-THE  FIGURE  OF  THE  EARTH.  By  Frank  a 
Roberts,  C.TS. 

X*  80.-HEALTH*  FOUNDATIONS  FOR  HOUSES,  fy 
Glenn  Brown. 


THE  VAN  NOSTRAND  SCIENCE  SERIES. 


No.  81. -WATER  METERS:  COMPARATIVE  TESTS  OF 
ACCURACY,  DELIVERY,  ETC.  Distinctive 
features  of  the  Worthington,  Kennedy,  Siemens, 
and  Hesse  meters.  By  Ross  E.  Browne. 

No.  82— THE  PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER  BY  THE  USE 
OF  ANTISEPTICS.  By  Samuel  Bagster  Boul- 
ton,  C.  E. 

No.   83.  —MECHANICAL    INTEGRATORS.       By   Prof.    Henry 

a  H.  SHAW,  C.  E. 
No.   84.— FLOW  OF  WATER  IN  OPEN  CHANNELS,   PIPES, 

CONDUITS,   SEWERS,    ETC.      With  Tables.      By 

P.  J.  Flynn,  C.  E. 
No.   85.  —THE     LUMINIFEROUS     AETHER.       By    Prof,     de 

Volson  Wood. 

No.  86.— HAND-BOOK  OF  MINERALOGY:  DETERMINA- 
TION AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  MINERALS 

FOUND  IN  THE   UNITED   STATES.       By    Prof. 

J.  C.  Foye.    Fourth  edition,  revised. 

No.  87.— TREATISE  ON  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  CON- 
STRUCTION OF  HELICOIDAL  OBLIQUE 

ARCHES.    By  John  L.  Culley,  C.  E. 
No.   88.— BEAMS    AND    GIRDERS.     Practical   Formulas    for 

their  Resistance.    By  P.  H.  Philbrick. 
No.   89.— MODERN  GUN  COTTON:      ITS    MANUFACTURE, 

PROPERTIES,      AND     ANALYSIS.       By     Lieut. 

John  P.  Wisser,  U.  S.  A. 
No.    90.— ROTARY  MOTION  AS   APPLIED    TO  THE  GYRO- 

SCOPE.    By  Gen.  J.  G.  Barnard. 
No.    9L—  LEVELING  •     BAROMETRIC    TRIGONOMETRIC 

AND  SPIRIT.    By  Prof.  I.  O.  Baker. 
No.  92.— PETROLEUM:    ITS  PRODUCTION  AND  USE.    By 

Boverton  Eedwood,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 
No.  98.— EECENT  PRACTICE  IN  THE  SANITARY  DRAINAGE 

OF  BUILDINGS.    With  Memoranda  on  the  Cost  of 

Plumbing   Work.      Second   edition,    revised.      By 

William  Paul  Gerhard,  C.  E. 
No.   94. -THE  TREATMENT  OF  SEWAGE.    By  Dr.  C.  Mey- 

mott  Tfcdy. 
No.  95. -PLATE  GIRDER  CONSTRUCTION.    By  Isami  Hiroi, 

C.  E.    2d  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
No.    9&-ALTERNATE    CURRENT   MACHINERY.      By    Gis- 

bert  Kapp,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.,  C.  E. 
No.  97.—  THE   DISPOSAL    OF   HOUSEHOLD  WASTES.    By 

W.  Paul  Gerhard,  Sanitary  Engineer. 
No.  98.— PRACTICAL  DYNAMO  BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS. 

HOW  TO  WIND  FOR  ANY  OUTPUT.    By  1'rederick 

Walker.    Fully  illustrated.' 

Ho.  99-TJUPLE  -  EXPANSION  ENGINES  AND  ENGINE 
TRIALS.  By  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds.  Edited, 
with  notes,  etc.,  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.  E. 


TBS  VAN  NOSTRAND  SCIENCE  SERIES. 

No.  100.-HOW  TO  BECOME  AN  ENGINEER,  or  the  Theo- 
retical  and  Practical  Training  necessary  in  fitting 
for  the  duties  of  the  Civil  Engineer.  By  Prof. 
Geo.  W.  Plympton. 

No.  101.— THE  SEXTANT,  and  other  Reflecting  Mathemati- 
cal Instruments.  With  Practical  Hints  for  their 
adjustment  and  use.  By  F.  R.  Brainard,  U.  8. 
Navy. 

No.  102.— THE  GALVANIC  CIRCUIT  INVESTIGATED 
MATHEMATICALLY.  By  Dr.  G.  S.  Ohm,  Ber- 
lin, 1827.  Translated  by  William  Francis.  With 
Preface  and  Notes  by  the  Editor,  Thomas  D. 
Lockwood,  M.I.E.E. 

No.  103.— THE  MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF 
POTABLE  WATER.  With  Diagrams.  By  Geo 
W.  Rafter. 

No.  104.— VAN  NOSTRAND'S  f TABLE  BOOK  FOR   CIVIL 

AND    MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS.      Compiled 

by  Prof.  Geo.  W.  Plympton, 
No.  105.— DETERMINANTS.    An  Introduction  to  the  Study 

of,  with  Examples  and  Applications.    By  Profc 

G.  A.  Miller. 

No.  106.— COMPRESSED  AIR.  Experiments  upon  the 
Transmission  of  Power  by  Compressed  Air  in 
Paris.  (Popp's  System.)  By  Prof.  A.  B.  W. 
Kennedy.  The  Transmission  and  Distribution  of 
Power  from  Central  Stations  by  Compressed  Air 
By  Prof.  W.  C.  Unwin. 

No.  107.-A  GRAPHICAL  METHOD  FOR  SWING-BRIDGES. 
A  Rational  and  Easy  Graphical  Analysis  of  the 
Stresses  in  Ordinary  Swing-Bridges.  With  an 
Introduction  on  the  General  Theory  of  Graphical 
Statics.  By  Benjamin  F.  La  Rue.  4  Plates. 

No.  108.— SLIDE  VALVE  DIAGRAMS.  A  French  Method 
for  Constructing  Slide  Valve  Diagrams.  By  Lloyd 
Bankson,  B.S.,  Assistant  Naval  Constructor  U. 
S.  Navy.  8  Folding  Plates. 

No.  109.— THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  ELECTRIC  CUR- 
RENTS. Electrical  Measuring  Instruments.  By 
James  Swinburne.  Meters  for  Electrical  Energy 
By  C.  H.  Wordingham.  Edited,  with  Preface, 
by  T.  Commerford  Martin.  Folding  Plate  and 
numerous  illustrations. 

No.  110.-TRANSITION  CURVES.  A  Field-Book  for  Engin- 
eers, containing  Rules  and  Tables  for  Laying 
out  Transition  Curves.  By  Walter  G.  Fox,  C.E. 

No.  111.— GAS-LIGHTING  AND  GAS-FITTING.  Specifica- 
tions and  Rules  for  Gas-Piping.  Notes  on  the 
advantages  of  Gas  for  Cooking  and  Heating,  and 
Useful  Hints  to  Gas  Consumers,  Second  edition- 
rewritten  and  enlarged.  By  Wm.  Paid  Geri*»rcL 
C.E. 

Ne.  112.— A  PRIMER  ON  THE  CALCULUS.     By  E.  Sherman 
Gould,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 


THE  VAN  NOSTRAXD  SCTEXCE  SERIES. 


No.  113.— PHYSICAL  PROBLEMS  and  their  Solution.  By  A. 
Bourgougnon,  formerly  Assistant  at  Bellevue  Hos- 
pital. 

No.  114.— MANUAL  OF  THE  SLIDE  RULE.  By  F.  A.  Halsey, 
of  the  American  Machinist. 

No.  115.— TRAVERSE  TABLES  showing  the  difference  of  Lati- 
tude and  Departure  for  distances  between  1  and  100 
and  for  Angles  to  Quarter  Degrees  between  1  degree 
and  90  degrees.  (Reprinted  Iroru  Scribner's  Pocket 
Table  Book.) 

No.  116.— WORM  AND  SPIRAL  GEARING.  Reprinted  from 
'•  American  Machinist,"  By  F.  A.  Halsey. 

No.  117.— PRACTICAL  HYDROSTATICS  AND  FORMULAS' 
with  Diagrams  and  Illustrations.  By  E.  Sherman 
Gould,  Mem.  A.  S.  C.  E. 

No.  118.— TREATMENT  OF  SEPTIC  SEWAGE,  with  Tables. 
By  George  W.  Rafter,  Mem.  A.  S.  0.  E. 

No.  119.— LAY-OUT  OF  CORLISS  VALVE  GEARS  with  Fold- 
ing Plates  and  Diagrams.  By  Sanford  A.  Moss,  M. 
S.,  Ph.  D. 

No.  120.— ART  OF  GENERATING  GEAR  TEETH.  By  Howard 
A.  Coombs.  With  Figures,  Diagrams  and  Folding 
Plates.  Reprinted  from  the  ' '  A  men  can  Machinist. ' ' 

No.  121.— CURRENT  PRACTICE  IN  GAS  ENGINE  DESIGN. 
By  H.  Lee  Koenig  and  G.  W.  Rice,  with  Folding 
Plates. 


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